INTRODUCTION
Although it cannot be stated with assurance whoever began the study of sectional anatomy, it is certain that the method was in use in the early sixteenth century. Examples of anatomical sections can be found in the anatomical drawings of the Italian genius, anatomist, and artist, Leonardo da Vinci. It is also possible that Vesalius, the great Flemish anatomist, was the first to represent, in transverse sections, the brain in situation.
Anatomy deals with the structure of our body. Our body is both a physical and a chemical machine all at the same time. The body works in a certain extent and sometimes bound by rules as to how they will operate. Each part of our body is engineered to do a particular job. And every job comes with a particular structure for it to run. And the rest is history…
The study of human anatomy answers all the various questions about the human life form. This defines the characteristics and needs common to all living things and the manner in which the human body is organized to accomplish life processes. The maintenance of life and the levels of organization is needed to the focus of human anatomy.
We are all living organisms. Therefore, we need to understand our behavior better and ourselves. Through the study of human anatomy, we can learn how our body works; how it reacts to diseases; how we resemble or differ from our siblings or parents and many more.
As indicated above, the study of human anatomy is extremely vital in this world, because through it, we can learn how to maintain our health, prevent diseases, or even help our body function better.
SYNTHESIS
Anatomy is the study of organization. Observation is used to see the sizes and relationships of body parts. Physiology is the study of how a structure (which may be a cell, an organ, or an organ system) functions or works. Structure determines what functions can occur. Therefore, if the structure changes, the function must also change. These three studies goes hand in hand with each other. There are six levels of structural organization; atoms combine, forming the unit of life, the cell. Cells are grouped into tissues, which in turn are arranged in specific ways to form organs. A number of organs form an organ system, which performs a specific function for the body. Together, all organism must be able to maintain it’s boundaries, move, respond to stimuli, digest nutrients and excrete wastes, carry on metabolism, reproduce itself, and grow. Survival needs include food, oxygen, water, appropriate temperature, and normal atmospheric pressure. Extreme lowness or highness of these factors could be very harmful. Body functions interact to maintain homeostasis, or a relatively stable internal environment within the body. Homeostasis is necessary for survival and good health.
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. Energy on the other hand, is the capacity to do work or put matter into motion. Energy has two types. The kinetic (active) and the potential (stored) work capacities. Energy forms are inconvertible, but some energy is always unusable in such transformations. Atoms are composed of three subatomic particles: protons, electrons, and neutrons. Because all atoms are electrically neutral, the number of the protons in any atom is equal to its number of electrons. A molecule is the smallest unit resulting from the binding of two or more atoms. If the atoms are different, a molecule of a compound is formed. Chemical bonds are energy relationships. Electrons in the outermost energy level (valence shell) of the reacting atoms are active in the bonding. Ions are formed when valence-shell electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another. The oppositely charged ions formed attract each other, forming an ionic bond. Ionic bonds are common in salts. Chemical reactions involve the formation or breaking of chemical bonds. The writing of a chemical equation, which provides information about the atomic composition and products, indicates them. In decomposition reactions, larger molecules are broken down into simpler molecules or atoms and its bonds are broken. Exchange reactions involve both the making and breaking of bonds. Other atoms replace atoms. Inorganic compounds making up living matter do not contain carbon. They include water, salts, acids, and bases. Organic compounds are carbon-containing compounds that comprise living matter. Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are examples. They all contain carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Proteins and nucleic acids also contain substantial amounts of nitrogen.
A cell is composed of primarily of four elements—carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen—plus many trace elements. Living matter is over 60 percent water. The major building material of the cell is protein. Cells have three major regions—nucleus, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane. All cells exhibit irritability, digest foods, excrete wastes, and are able to reproduce, grow, move, and metabolize. Transport of substances through the cell membrane includes passive transport processes, diffusion and filtration; active transport processes use energy provided by the cell. Osmotic pressure, which reflects the solute concentrate of a solution, determines whether cells gain or lose water. Cell division has two phases: mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm). Protein synthesis involves both DNA and the RNA.
Epithelium is the covering, lining, and the glandular tissue. Its functions include protection, absorption, and secretion. Epithelia are named according to arrangement and cell shape. Connective tissue is the supportive, protective, and the binding tissue. It is characterized by the presence of a nonliving, extracellular matrix produced and secreted by the cells and varies in amount and consistency. Nervous tissue is composed of supporting cells and irritable cells called the neurons that are highly specialized to receive and transmit nerve impulses and supporting cells. Muscle tissue is specialized to contract, or shorten, which causes movement. There are three types—skeletal (attached to the skeleton), cardiac (attached to the heart), and smooth (on the walls of hollow organs).
Skin functions include protection of the deeper tissue from chemicals, bacteria, bumps, and drying; regulation of the body temperature through radiation and sweating; and synthesis of defensive proteins and vitamin D. The cutaneous sensory receptors are located in the skin. The skin is thick, resilient, and well hydrated in youth but loses its elasticity and thins as aging occurs. Skin cancer is a major threat to skin exposed to excessive sunlight.
Bones support and protect body organs; serve as levers for muscles to pull on to cause movement at joints; store calcium, fats, and other substances for the body; and contain red marrow, the site of red cell production. Cranial and facial bones form the skull. Eight cranial bones protect the brain: frontal, occipital, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones, and the pairs of parietal and temporal bones. The 14 facial bones are all paired except for the vomer and mandible. The hyoid bone, not really a skull bone is supported in the neck by ligaments. Joints hold bones together and allow movement of the skeleton and falls into three functional categories: synarthroses (immovable), amphiathroses (slightly movable), and diathroses (freely movable).
Skeletal muscle forms the muscles attached to the skeleton, which moves the limbs and other body parts. Its cells are long, striated, and multinucleate. Skeletal muscle fibers are subject to voluntary control. Connective tissue coverings enclose and protect the muscle fibers and increase the strength of skeletal muscles. Skeletal muscles make up the muscular system. All skeletal muscle cells are stimulated by motor neurons. When the neurons releases a neurotransmitter, the permeability of sarcolemma changes, allowing sodium ions to enter the muscle cell. This produces an electrical current flows across the entire sarcolemma, resulting in release of calcium ions from the SR. All muscles are attached to bones at two points. The origin is the immovable attachment; the insertion is the movable bony attachment. The contraction occurs, the insertion moves toward the origin. Muscles of the head fall into two groups, the muscles of the facial expression include the frontalis, orbicularis oris and oculi and zygomaticus. The chewing muscles are the masseter, temporalis, and the buccinator, which is also a muscle of facial expression.
The organization of the nervous system has two parts: structural is all the nervous system structures are classified as a part of the central nervous system or the CNS and the functional which is the motor nerves of the CNS are classified on the basis of whether they stimulate skeletal muscle or smooth/cardiac muscle and glands. The brain is located within the cranial cavity of the skull and consists of the cerebral hemispheres, diencephalons, brain stem structures, and cerebellum. The bones of the skull and vertebral column are the most external protective structures of the central nervous system. A nerve is a bundle of neuron processes wrapped in connective tissue coverings.
There are four external/accessory structures of the eye—the extrinsic eye muscles, the lacrimal apparatus, the eyelids, and the conjunctiva. The ear is divided into three major areas—the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The olfactory (sense of smell) receptors are located in the superior aspect of each nasal cavity. Sniffling helps to bring more air over the olfactory muscles. The gustatory (sense of taste) cells are located in the taste buds, primarily on the tongue. The four major taste sensations are sweet, salt, sour, and bitter.
The endocrine system are to maintain homeostasis in the body by releasing chemicals, called hormones. The major processes controlled by hormones are reproduction; growth and development; mobilization of body defenses against stressors; maintenance of electrolyte, water, and the nutrient balance of the blood; and the regulation of cellular metabolism and energy balance. The pituitary gland is about the size of a grape and has two functional lobes: the anterior pituitary (glandular tissue) and the posterior pituitary (nervous tissue). The thyroid gland is located at the base of the throat just anterior the Adam’s apple. It consist of tow lobes connected by the isthmus. The thyroid gland produces two hormones; thyroid hormone and calcitonin. The thyroid hormone is actually two iodine-containing hormones: thyroxine and triiodothyronine. Together, thyroid hormone controls the rate at which glucose is burned (or oxidized) and turned into body heat and chemical energy. Every cell in the body is a target for this hormone because they all depend on a continuous supply of energy. Calcitonin, or thyrocalcitonin, decreases calcium levels by causing calcium to be deposited in the bones. The parathyroid glands are tiny masses of glandular tissue found on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. There are two lobes on each gland, and these four lobes secrete parathyroid hormone or parathormone. This hormone acts as a counter to calcitonin. When calcium levels drop in the blood, it breaks down bone and releases calcium into the blood. The adrenal glands rest above the kidneys. Although it looks like one gland, like the pituitary gland, it has both glandular (cortex) and neural tissue (medulla) parts.
Blood id the fluid of life. Transporting oxygen from the lungs to the body tissue and carbon dioxide from the body tissue to the lungs. Blood is the fluid of growth, transporting nourishment from digestion and hormones from glands throughout the body. Blood is the fluid of health, transporting disease fighting substances to the tissue and waste to the kidneys. Red blood cells and white blood cells are responsible for nourishing and cleansing the body. Since the cells alive, they too need nourishment. Vitamins and minerals keep the blood healthy. The blood cells have a definite life cycle, just as all living organisms do.
The cardiovascular system includes the heart and the blood vessels. The heart pumps blood, and the blood vessels channel and deliver it throughout the body. Arteries carry blood filled with nutrients away from the heart to all parts of the body. The blood is sometimes compared to a river, but the arteries are more like a river in reverse. Arteries are thick-walled tubes with a circular covering of yellow, elastic fibers, which contain a blood down. This pressure can be felt in the art and the wrist – it is the pulse. Eventually, arteries divide into smaller arterioles and then into even smaller capillaries, the smallest of all blood vessels. One arteriole can serve a hundred capillaries. Here, in every tissue of every organ, blood’s work is done when it gives up what the cells need and takes away the waste products that they don’t need. Now the river comparison really does apply. Capillaries join together to form small veins, which flow into larger main veins, and these deliver deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Veins, unlike arteries, have thin, slack walls, because the blood has lost the pressure which forced it out of the heart, so the dark, reddish-blue blood which flows through the veins on its way to the lings oozes along very slowly on its way to be reoxygenated. Back at the heart, the veins enter a special vessel, called the pulmonary arteries, into the wall at the right side of the heart. It flows along the pulmonary arteries to the lungs to collect oxygen, then right back to the heart’s left side to begin its journey around the body again.
The lymphatic system serves as a slow flowing, low pressure drainage system that collects a small portion of the interstitial fluid from throughout the body and returns it to the bloodstream. The throracic duct arises anterior to the second lumbar vertebra as enlarged sac, beginning as the cisterna chili. This sac-like lymphatic mass collects lymph from lower limbs of the body as well as the digestive system. Unlike the circulatory systems, the lymphatic system lacks any central “heart” like organ to pump lymph throughout the lymph vessels. Instead, the lymphatic system depends on muscular movement, breathing, and simple gravity to move lymph fluid throughout the body. However, the thoracic duct does not contain smooth muscle (the same muscle type that exist in the lower digestive system and the arterial system) in order to aid lymph flow. Thus, frequent movement is critical for humans to properly move lymph and prevent lymph fluid build-up in certain areas of the body.
The digestive system is the part of the body that digests food we eat everyday. There is a long process to digest food and it is not that simple. There are many procedures with organs, tubes, and other parts. Digestion starts with the mouth. Food is put into it and chewed up by the teeth. The teeth chews the food into small pieces and travels down the esophagus with the help of mucus and muscle contractions. After moving the esophagus, the food reaches the stomach. Here, cells in the stomach lining release concentrated hydrochloric acid. This acid can easily break up the stomach if it wasn’t able for the help of the thick coating mucus. The food spend up to four hours in the stomach. The food moves to the small intestine. The rest of digestion takes place in the entrance of the small intestine. The beginning 25 cm of the small intestine is the duodenum. This is where carbohydrates and proteins are broken down. The rest of the 90% of the small intestine takes in nutrients and proteins in digestion and puts them in your blood. Water is also absorbed. Products of digestion are absorbed into the bloodstream during three to six hours in the small intestine. Secretions from the liver and pancreas break down additional food. Molecules absorbed into the bloodstream first go to the liver. The liver remove extra glucose from the bloodstream and stores it. Last, your food moves to the large intestine, compacts this indigestible material, and gets rid of it. It finally leaves the body in the rectum and anus as feces.
The structure of the urinary tract includes: the kidneys, two ureters, (tubes leading from the kidneys to the bladder), and the urethra, a tube leading from the bladder to the exterior of the body. The urinary tract is a little like a plumbing system, with special pipes that allows water and salts to flow through them. The kidneys make up a filter system for the blood, reabsorbing almost 99% of the fluid into the blood, and sending only two to four pints of waste (urine) into the bladder for storage until it can be disposed of. The kidneys allow the blood to keep glucose, salts, and minerals after cleansing it of poisonous materials which will be passed out in the urinary tract. Urine is produced in the kidneys and trickles down twenty-four hours a day through ten to twelve inch long tubes called ureters, which connect the kidneys to the bladder. The ureters are about one-fourth inch in diameter and their muscular walls contract to make waves of movement to be conveniently disposed of. It also closes openings into the ureters so that urine cannot flow back into the kidneys. The tube through which the urine flows out of the body is called urethra.
The reproductive systenm is a term applied to the group of plant or animal organs that are necessary that are accessory to the reproductive processes. The basic units of sexual reproduction are the male and female germ cells. This article deals with the organs within which the germ cells of animals mature and are stored, the organs through which they are transported in the process of producing a new individual, and accessory glandular organs. When the embryo of any sexually reproducing animal is undergoing cell division, certain cells, known as primordial germ cells, which are produced by such division, remain in an undifferentiated state. Cells other than primordial germ cells are known as vegetative cells or somatic cells; these cells become differentiated into tissues and organs.
CORRELATION TO THE FIELD
Modern psychology can also be traced to the study of physiology, a branch of biology that studies living organisms and their parts and medicine. In the 19th century, physiologists began studying the human brain and nervous system, paying close attention to the topic of sensation. For example, in the 1850s and 1860s German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz studied sensory receptors in the eye and ear, investigating topics such as the speed of neural impulses, color vision, hearing, and space perception. Another important German scientist, Gustav Fechner, founded psychophysics, the study of the relationship between physical stimuli and our subjective sensations of those stimuli. Building on the work of his fellow citizen Ernst Weber, Fechner developed a technique for measuring people's subjective sensations of various physical stimuli. He sought to determine the minimum intensity level of a stimulus that is needed to produce a sensation.
Psychology overlaps with other sciences that study behavior and mental processes. Certain parts of the field share much with the biological sciences, especially physiology, the biological study of the functions of living organisms. Like physiologists, many psychologists study the inner workings of the body from a biological perspective. However, psychologists usually focus on the activity of the brain and nervous system. Today, many psychologists work in the emerging area of health psychology, the application of psychology to the support of physical health and the prevention and treatment of illness. Researchers in this area have shown that human health and well-being depends on both biological and psychological factors. Many psychologists in this area study psychophysiological disorders (also called psychosomatic disorders), conditions that are brought on or influenced by psychological states, most often stress. These disorders include high blood pressure, headaches, asthma, and ulcers. Researchers have discovered that chronic stress is associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease. In addition, stress can compromise the body's immune system and increase susceptibility to illness. Health psychologists also study how people cope with stress. They have found that people who have family, friends, and other forms of social support are healthier and live longer than those who are more isolated. Other researchers in this field examine the psychological factors that underlie smoking, drinking, drug abuse, risky sexual practices, and other behaviors harmful to health.
Biopsychologists interested in the links between brain and behavior use a variety of specialized techniques in their research. One approach is to observe and test patients who have suffered damage to a specific region of the brain to determine what mental functions and behaviors were affected by that damage. British-born neurologist Oliver Sacks has written several books in which he describes case studies of brain-damaged patients who exhibited specific deficits in their speech, memory, sleep, and even in their personalities. A second approach is to physically alter the brain and measure the effects of that change on behavior. The alteration can be achieved in different ways. For example, animal researchers often damage or destroy a specific region of a laboratory animal's brain through surgery. Other researchers might spark or inhibit activity in the brain through the use of drugs or electrical stimulation.
RECOMMENDATION
Although the book was knowledgeably written, still it has some flaws. In it’s 4th revision, Elaine Marieb had unfailingly provided students with ample knowledge in the field of Human Anatomy. Her book offers intricate details and illustrations for better understanding but, the supplementary questions for review are not that useful because of the summary that she put immediately after it. She should have put the questions every end of the topic and then summarize the whole chapter after. Writing a good book that will be the use of every student studying Human Anatomy is not a walk in the park.
) i always dreamed of the time when our paths would meet again,,, and i would be drowned again in misery... getting that emo feeling again in me. even if there was nothing to be "emo" about.
MONEY 
im still feeling gloomy lalo na pag naaalala ko na bente nako. i can't consider myself as a TEENAGER anymore... (only in times if i want to.) and also in a years time, im supposed (SUPPOSED) to be graduating na. AND ILL BE ONE OF THOSE BUMS IN THE SOCIETY. well,, ill be a bum for a year (tagal no?) PAPAKASAYA MUNA AKO AT GAGAWIN KO LAHAT NG GUSTO KO LIKE:
daw ang love 
story.
read on... 
